passage 7
between the eighth and eleventh centuries a.d.， thebyzantine empire staged an almost unparalleledeconomic and cultural revival， a recovery that is all themore striking BECause it followed a long period of severe（5） internal decline. by the early eighth century， the empirehad lost roughly two-thirds of the territory it hadpossessed in the year 600， and its remaining area wasbeing raided by arabs and bulgarians， who at timesthreatened to take constantinople and extinguish the（10） empire altogether. the wealth of the state and itssubjects was GREatly diminished， and artistic and literaryproduction had virtually ceased. by the early eleventhcentury， however， the empire had regained almost half ofits lost possessions， its new frontiers were secure， and its（15） influence extended far beyond its borders. the economyhad recovered， the treasury was full， and art and scho-larship had advanced.
to consider the byzantine military， cultural， andeconomic advances as differentiated aspects of a single（20） phenomenon is reasonable. after all， these three forms of progress have gone together in a number of states and civilizations. rome under augustus and fifth-century athens provide the most obvious examples in antiquity.moreover， an examination of the apparent sequential（25） connections among military， economic， and culturalforms of progress might help explain the dynamics ofhistorical change.
the common explanation of these apparent conn-ections in the case of byzantium would run like this：（30） when the empire had turned back enemy raids on its own territory and had begun to raid and conquer enemyterritory， byzantine resources naturally expanded andmore money became available to patronize art and lit- erature. therefore， byzantine military achievements led to（35） economic advances， which in turn led to cultural revival.
no doubt this hypothetical pattern did apply at times during the course of the recovery. yet it is not clear that military advances invariably came first. economic advances second， and intellectual advances third. in the（40） 860‘s the byzantine empire began to recover from arabincursions so that by 872 the military balance with the abbasid caliphate had been permanently altered in the empire’s favor. the beginning of the empire‘s economic revival， however， can be placed between 810 and 830.
（45） finally， the byzantine revival of learning appears to have begun even earlier. a number of notable scholars and writers appeared by 788 and， by the last decade of the eighth century， a cultural revival was in full bloom， a revival that lasted until the fall of constantinople in（50） 1453.thus the commonly expected order of militaryrevival followed by economic and then by culturalrecovery was reversed in byzantium. in fact， the revivalof byzantine learning may itself have influenced thesubsequent economic and military expansion.
1. which of the following best states the central idea of the passage？
（a） the byzantine empire was a unique case in which the usual order of military and economic revival preceding cultural revival was reversed.
（b） the economic， cultural， and military revival in the byzantine empire between the eighth and eleventh centuries was similar in its order to the sequence of revivals in augustan rome and fifth- century athens.
（c） after 810 byzantine economic recovery spurred a military and， later，cultural expansion that lasted until 1453.
（d） the eighth-century revival of byzantine learning is an inexplicable phenomenon，and its economic and military precursors have yet to be discovered.
（e） the revival of the byzantine empire between the eighth and eleventh centuries shows cultural rebirth preceding economic and military revival， the reverse of the commonly accepted order of progress.
2. the primary purpose of the second paragraph is which of the following？
（a） to establish the uniqueness of the byzantine revival
（b） to show that augustan rome and fifth-century athens are examples of cultural， economic， and military expansion against which all subsequent cases must be measured
（c） to suggest that cultural， economic. and military advances have tended to be closely interrelated in different societies.
（d） to argue that， while the revivals of augustan rome and fifth-century athens were similar， they are unrelated to other historical examples
（e） to indicate that， wherever possible， historians should seek to make comparisons with the earliest chronological examples of revival
3. it can be inferred from the passage that by theeleventh century the byzantine military forces
（a） had reached their peak and begun to decline
（b） had eliminated the bulgarian army
（c） were comparable in size to the army of rome under augustus
（d） were strong enough to withstand the abbasid caliphate‘s military forces
（e） had achieved control of byzantine governmental structures
4. it can be inferred from the passage that the byzantineempire sustained significant territorial losses
（a） in 600
（b） during the seventh century
（c） a century after the cultural achievements of the byzantine empire had been lost
（d） soon after the revival of byzantine learning
（e） in the century after 873
5. in the third paragraph， the author most probablyprovides an explanation of the apparent connections among economic，military， and cultural developmentin order to
（a） suggest that the process of revival in byzantium accords with this model
（b） set up an order of events that is then shown to be not generally applicable to the case of byzantium
（c） cast aspersions on traditional historical scholarship about byzantium
（d） suggest that byzantium represents a case for which no historical precedent exists
（e） argue that military conquest is the paramount element in the growth of empires
6. which of the following does the author mention ascrucial evidence concerning the manner in which the byzantine revival began？
（a） the byzantine military revival of the 860‘s led to economic and cultural advances.
（b） the byzantine cultural revival lasted until 1453.
（c） the byzantine economic recovery began in the 900‘s.
（d） the revival of byzantine learning began toward the end of the eighth century.
（e） by the early eleventh century the byzantine empire had regained much of its lost territory.
7. according to the author， “the common explanation”（line 28） of connections between economic，military，and cultural development is
（a） revolutionary and too new to have been applied to the history of the byzantine empire
（b） reasonable， but an antiquated theory of the nature of progress
（c） not applicable to the byzantine revival as a whole， but does perhaps accurately describe limited periods during the revival
（d） equally applicable to the byzantine case as a whole and to the history of military， economic， and cultural advances in ancient greece and rome
（e） essentially not helpful， because military， economic，and cultural advances are part of a single phenomenon
1. which of the following titles best summarizes the passage as a whole？
（a） at the threshold of neutrino astronomy
（b） neutrinos and the history of the universe
（c） the creation and study of neutrinos
（d） the dumand system and how it works
（e） the properties of the neutrino
2. with which of the following statements regardingneutrino astronomy would the author be most likelyto agree？
（a） neutrino astronomy will supersede all present forms of astronomy.
（b） neutrino astronomy will be abandoned if the dumand project fails.
（c） neutrino astronomy can be expected to lead to major breakthroughs in astronomy.
（d） neutrino astronomy will disclose phenomena that will be more surprising than past discoveries.
（e） neutrino astronomy will always be characterized by a large time lag between hypothesis and experimental confirmation.
3. in the last paragraph， the author describes thedevelopment of astronomy in order to
（a） suggest that the potential findings of neutrino astronomy can be seen as part of a series of astronomical successes
（b） illustrate the role of surprise in scientific discovery
（c） demonstrate the effectiveness of the dumand apparatus in detecting neutrinos
（d） name some cosmic phenomena that neutrino astronomy will illuminate
（e） contrast the motivation of earlier astronomers with that of the astrophysicists working on the dumand project
4.according to the passage， one advantage that neutrinos have for studies in astronomy is that they
（a） have been detected for the last twenty-five years
（b） possess a variable electric charge
（c） are usually extremely massive
（d） carry information about their history with them
（e） are very similar to other electromagnetic particles
5. according to the passage， the primary use of theapparatus mentioned in lines 24-32 would be to
（a） increase the mass of a neutrino
（b） interpret the information neutrinos carry with them
（c） study the internal structure of a neutrino
（d） see neutrinos in distant regions of space
（e） detect the presence of cosmic neutrinos
6. the passage states that interactions between neutrinosand other matter are
（a） rare
（b） artificial
（c） undetectable
（d） unpredictable
（e） hazardous
7. the passage mentions which of the following as areason that neutrinos are hard to detect？
（a） their pervasiveness in the universe（b） their ability to escape from different regions of space
（c） their inability to penetrate dense matter
（d） the similarity of their structure to that of nucleons
（e） the infrequency of their interaction with other matter
8. according to the passage， the interaction of a neutrinowith other matter can produce
（a） particles that are neutral and massive
（b） a form of radiation that permeates the universe
（c） inaccurate information about the site and circumstances of the neutrino‘s production
（d） charged particles and light
（e） a situation in which light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation are blocked
9. according to the passage， one of the methods used to establish the properties of neutrinos was
（a） detection of photons
（b） observation of the interaction of neutrinos with gamma rays
（c） observation of neutrinos that were artificially created
（d） measurement of neutrinos that interacted with particles of seawater
（e） experiments with electromagnetic radiation
passage 9
most economists in the united states seemcaptivated by the spell of the free market. conse-quently， nothing seems good or normal that doesnot accord with the requirements of the free market.（5） a price that is determined by the seller or， forthat matter， established by anyone other than theaggregate of consumers seems pernicious. accord-ingly， it requires a major act of will to think ofprice-fixing （the determination of prices by the（10） seller） as both “normal” and having a valuableeconomic function. in fact， price-fixing is normalin all industrialized societies because the indus-trial system itself provides， as an effortless conse-quence of its own development， the price-fixing（15） that it requires. modern industrial planningrequires and rewards great size. hence，a comparatively small number of large firms willbe competing for the same group of consumers.that each large firm will act with consideration of（20） its own needs and thus avoid selling its productsfor more than its competitors charge is commonlyrecognized by advocates of free-market economictheories. but each large firm will also act withfull consideration of the needs that it has in（25） common with the other large firms competing forthe same customers. each large firm will thusavoid significant price-cutting， because price-cutting would be prejudicial to the common interestin a stable demand for products. most economists（30） do not see price-fixing when it occurs becausethey expect it to be brought about by a number ofexplicit agreements among large firms； it is not.
moreover， those economists who argue that allowing the free market to operate without inter-（35） ference is the most efficient method of establishingprices have not considered the economies of non-socialist countries other than the united states.these economies employ intentional price-fixing，usually in an overt fashion. formal price-fixing（40） by cartel and informal price-fixing by agreementscovering the members of an industry are common-place. were there something peculiarly efficientabout the free market and inefficient about price-fixing， the countries that have avoided the first（45） and used the second would have suffered drasticallyin their economic development. there is no indica-tion that they have.
socialist industry also works within a frame-work of controlled prices. in the early 1970‘s，（50） the soviet union began to give firms and industriessome of the flexibility in adjusting prices that amore informal evolution has accorded the capitalistsystem. economists in the united states havehailed the change as a return to the free market.（55） but soviet firms are no more subject to pricesestablished by a free market over which theyexercise little influence than are capitalist firms；rather， soviet firms have been given the power tofix prices.
1. the primary purpose of the passage is to
（a） refute the theory that the free market plays auseful role in the development of industrializedsocieties
（b） suggest methods by which economists and membersof the government of the united states canrecognize and coMBAt price-fixing by large firms
（c） show that in industrialized societies price-fixing andthe operation of the free market are not onlycompatible but also mutually beneficial
（d） explain the various ways in which industrializedsocieties can fix prices in order to stabilize the freemarket
（e） argue that price-fixing， in one form or another， is aninevitable part of and benefit to the economy of anyindustrialized society
2. the passage provides information that would answer which of the following questions about price-fixing？
ⅰ.what are some of the ways in which prices can befixed？
ⅱ. for what products is price-fixing likely to be moreprofitable that the operation of the free market？
ⅲ.is price-fixing more common in socialistindustrialized societies or in nonsocialistindustrialized societies？
（a） ⅰonly
（b） ⅲ only
（c） ⅰand ⅱonly
（d） ⅱand ⅲ only
（e） ⅰ，ⅱ，and ⅲ
3. the author‘s attitude toward “most economists in theunited states”（line 1） can best be described as
（a） spiteful and envious
（b） scornful and denunciatory
（c） critical and condescending
（d） ambivalent but deferential
（e） uncertain but interested
4. it can be inferred from the author‘s argument that aprice fixed by the seller “seems pernicious”（line 7）because
（a） people do not have confidence in large firms
（b） people do not expect the government to regulate prices
（c） most economists believe that consumers as a group should determine prices
（d） most economists associate fixed prices with communist and socialist economies
（e） most economists believe that no one group should determine prices
5. the suggestion in the passage that price-fixing in industrialized societies is normal arises from the author‘s statement that price-fixing is
（a） a profitable result of economic development
（b） an inevitable result of the industrial system
（c） the result of a number of carefully organized decisions
（d） a phenomenon common to industrialized and nonindustrialized societies
（e） a phenomenon best achieved cooperatively bygovernment and industry
6. according to the author， price-fixing in nonsocialistcountries is often
（a） accidental but productive
（b） illegal but useful
（c） legal and innovative
（d） traditional and rigid
（e） intentional and widespread
7. according to the author， what is the result of the sovietunion‘s change in economic policy in the 1970’s
（a） soviet firms show greater profit.
（b） soviet firms have less control over the free market.
（c） soviet firms are able to adjust to tech nological advances.
（d） soviet firms have some authority to fix prices.
（e） soviet firms are more responsive to the free market.
8. with which of the following statements regarding thebehavior of large firms in industrialized societieswould the author be most likely to agree？
（a） the directors of large firms will continue to anticipate the demand for products
（b） the directors of large firms are less interested inachieving a predictable level of profit than inachieving a large profit.
（c） the directors of large firms will strive to reduce thecosts of their products
（d） many directors of large firms believe that thegovernment should establish the prices that will becharged for products
（e） many directors of large firms believe that the price charged for products is likely to increase annually.
9. in the passage， the author is primarily concerned with
（a） predicting the consequences of a practice
（b） criticizing a point of view
（c） calling attention to recent discoveries
（d） proposing a topic for research
（e） summarizing conflicting opinions
passage 10
caffeine， the stimulant in coffee， has been called “the most widely used psychoactive substance on earth .” synder， daly and bruns have recently proposed that caffeine affects behavior by countering the activity in（5） the human brain of a naturally occurring chemical calledadenosine. adenosine normally depresses neuron firingin many areas of the brain. it apparently does this byinhibiting the release of neurotransmitters， chemicalsthat carry nerve impulses from one neuron to the next.（10） like many other agents that affect neuron firing，adenosine must first bind to specific receptors onneuronal membranes. there are at least two classesof these receptors， which have been designated a1 anda2. snyder et al propose that caffeine， which is struc-（15）turally similar to adenosine， is able to bind to both typesof receptors， which prevents adenosine from attachingthere and allows the neurons to fire more readily thanthey otherwise would.
for many years， caffeine‘s effects have been attri-（20）buted to its inhibition of the production of phosphodi-esterase， an enzyme that breaks down the chemicalcalled cyclic amp.a number of neurotransmitters exerttheir effects by first increasing cyclic amp concentra-tions in target neurons. therefore， prolonged periods at（25）the elevated concentrations， as might be brought aboutby a phosphodiesterase inhibitor， could lead to a greateramount of neuron firing and， consequently， to behav-ioral stimulation. but snyder et al point out that thecaffeine concentrations needed to inhibit the production（30）of phosphodiesterase in the brain are much higher thanthose that produce stimulation. moreover， other com-pounds that block phosphodiesterase’s activity are notstimulants.
to buttress their case that caffeine acts instead by pre-（35）venting adenosine binding， snyder et al compared thestimulatory effects of a series of caffeine derivatives withtheir ability to dislodge adenosine from its receptors inthe brains of mice. “in general，” they reported， “the ability of the compounds to compete at the receptors（40） correlates with their ability to stimulate locomotion in the mouse； i.e.， the higher their capacity to bind at thereceptors， the higher their ability to stimulate locomo-tion.” theophylline， a close structural relative of caffeineand the major stimulant in tea， was one of the most（45） effective compounds in both regards.
there were some apparent exceptions to the generalcorrelation observed between adenosine-receptor bindingand stimulation. one of these was a compound called3-isobuty1-1-methylxanthine（ibmx）， which bound very（50） well but actually depressed mouse locomotion. snyderet al suggest that this is not a major stumbling block totheir hypothesis. the problem is that the compound hasmixed effects in the brain， a not unusual occurrence withpsychoactive drugs. even caffeine， which is generally（55） known only for its stimulatory effects， displays thisproperty， depressing mouse locomotion at very lowconcentrations and stimulating it at higher ones.
1. the primary purpose of the passage is to
（a） discuss a plan for investigation of a phenomenon that is not yet fully understood
（b） present two explanations of a phenomenon and reconcile the differences between them
（c） summarize two theories and suggest a third theory that overcomes the problems encountered in the first two
（d） describe an alternative hypothesis and provide evidence and arguments that support it
（e） challenge the validity of a theory by exposing the inconsistencies and contradictions in it
2. which of the following， if true， would most weaken the theory proposed by snyder et al？
（a） at very low concentrations in the human brain. both caffeine and theophylline tend to have depressive rather than stimulatory effects on human behavior.
（b） the ability of caffeine derivatives at very low concentrations to dislodge adenosine from its receptors in mouse brains correlates well with their ability to stimulate mouse locomotion at these low concentrations
（c） the concentration of cyclic amp in target neurons in the human brain that leads to increased neuron firing can be produced by several different phosphodi esterase inhibitors in addition to caffeine.
（d） the concentration of caffeine required to dislodge adenosine from its receptors in the human brain is much greater than the concentration that produces behavioral stimulation in humans.
（e） the concentration of ibmx required to dislodge adenosine from its receptors in mouse brains is much smaller than the concentration that stimulates locomotion in the mouse.
3. according so snyder et al， caffeine differs fromadenosine in that caffeine
（a） stimulates behavior in the mouse and in humans， whereas adenosine stimulates behavior in humans only
（b） has mixed effects in the brain， whereas adenosine has only a stimulatory effect
（c） increases cyclic amp concentrations in target neurons， whereas adenosine decreases such concentrations
（d） permits release of neurotransmitters when it is bound to adenosine receptors， whereas adenosine inhibits such release
（e） inhibits both neuron firing and the production of phosphodiesterase when there is a sufficient concentration in the brain， whereas adenosine inhibits only neuron firing
4. in response to experimental results concerning ibmx，snyder et al contended that it is not uncommon forpsychoactive drugs to have
（a） mixed effects in the brain
（b） inhibitory effects on enzymes in the brain
（c） close structural relationships with caffeine
（d） depressive effects on mouse locomotion
（e） the ability to dislodge caffeine from receptors in the brain
5. the passage suggests that snyder et al believe that if theolder theory concerning caffeine‘s effects were correct，which of the following would have to be the case？
ⅰ.all neurotransmitters would increase the short-term concentration of cyclic amp in target neurons.
ⅱ.substances other than caffeine that inhibit the production of phosphodiesterase would be stimulants.
ⅲ.all concentration levels of caffeine that are highenough to produce stimulation would also inhibit the production of phosphodiesterase.
（a） ⅰ only
（b） ⅰ and ⅱ only
（c） ⅰand ⅲ only
（d） ⅱ and ⅲ only
（e） ⅰ，ⅱ，and ⅲ
6. according to snyder et al， all of the followingcompounds can bind to specific receptors in the brainexcept
（a） ibmx
（b） caffeine
（c） adenosine
（d） theophylline
（e） phosphodiesterase
7. snyder et al suggest that caffeine‘s ability to bind to a1 and a2 receptors can be at least partially attributed towhich of the following？
（a） the chemical relationship between caffeine and phosphodiesterase
（b） the structural relationship between caffeine and adenosine
（c） the structural similarity between caffeine and neurotransmitters
（d） the ability of caffeine to stimulate behavior
（e） the natural occurrence of caffeine and adenosine in the brain
8. the author quotes snyder et al in lines 38-43 most probably in order to
（a） reveal some of the assumptions underlying their theory
（b） summarize a major finding of their experiments
（c） point out that their experiments were limited to the mouse
（d） indicate that their experiments resulted only in general correlations
（e） refute the objections made by supporters of the older theory
9. the last paragraph of the passage performs which of thefollowing functions？
（a） describes a disconfirming experimental result and reports the explanation given by snyder et al in an attempt to reconcile this result with their theory.
（b） specifies the basis for the correlation observed by snyder et al and presents an explanation in an attempt to make the correlation consistent with the operation of psychoactive drugs other than caffeine.
（c） elaborates the description of the correlation observed by snyder et al and suggests an additional explanation in an attempt to make the correlation consistent with the older theory.
（d） reports inconsistent experimental data and describes the method snyder et al will use to reanalyze this data.
（e） provides an example of the hypothesis proposed by snyder et al and relates this example to caffeine‘s properties.
passage 11
archaeology as a profession faces two major prob-lems. first， it is the poorest of the poor. only paltrysums are available for excavating and even less is avail-able for publishing the results and preserving the sites（5）once excavated. yet archaeologists deal with pricelessobjects every day. second， there is the problem of illegalexcavation， resulting in museum-quality pieces beingsold to the highest bidder.
i would like to make an outrageous suggestion that（10） would at one stroke provide funds for archaeology andreduce the amount of illegal digging. i would proposethat scientific archeological expeditions and govern-mental authorities sell excavated artifacts on the openmarket. such sales would provide substantial funds for（15） the excavation and preservation of archaeological sitesand the publication of results. at the same time， theywould break the illegal excavator‘s grip on the market，thereby decreasing the inducement to engage in illegalactivities.
（20）you might object that professionals excavate toacquire knowledge， not money. moreover， ancient arti-facts are part of our global cultural heritage， whichshould be available for all to appreciate， not sold to thehighest bidder. i agree. sell nothing that has unique（25） artistic merit or scientific value. but， you might reply，everything that comes our of the ground has scientificvalue. here we part company. theoretically， you may becorrect in claiming that every artifact has potential scien-tific value. practically， you are wrong.
（30）i refer to the thousands of pottery vessels and ancientlamps that are essentially duplicates of one another. inone small excavation in cyprus， archaeologists recentlyuncovered 2，000 virtually indistinguishable small jugs ina single courtyard， even precious royal seal impressions（35） known as/melekh handles have been found in abun-dance——more than 4，000 examples so far.
the basements of museums are simply not largeenough to store the artifacts that are likely to be discov-ered in the future. there is not enough money even to（40） catalogue the finds； as a result， they cannot be foundagain and become as inaccessible as if they had neverbeen discovered. indeed， with the help of a computer，sold artifacts could be more accessible than are thepieces stored in bulging museum basements. prior to（45） sale， each could be photographed and the list of thepurchasers could be maintained on the computer apurchaser could even be required to agree to return thepiece if it should become needed for scientific purposes.
it would be unrealistic to suggest that illegal digging（50） would stop if artifacts were sold on the open market.but the demand for the clandestine product would besubstantially reduced. who would want an unmarkedpot when another was available whose provenance wasknown， and that was dated stratigraphically by theprofessional archaeologist who excavated it？
1. the primary purpose of the passage is to propose
（a） an alternative to museum display of artifacts
（b） a way to curb illegal digging while benefiting the archaeological profession
（c） a way to distinguish artifacts with scientific value from those that have no such value
（d） the governmental regulation of archaeological sites
（e） a new system for cataloguing duplicate artifacts
2. the author implies that all of the following statementsabout duplicate artifacts are true except：
（a） a market for such artifacts already exists.
（b） such artifacts seldom have scientific value.
（c） there is likely to be a continuing supply of such artifacts.
（d） museums are well supplied with examples of such artifacts.
（e） such artifacts frequently exceed in quality those already catalogued in museum collections.
3. which of the following is mentioned in the passage as adisadvantage of storing artifacts in museumbasements？
（a） museum officials rarely allow scholars access to such artifacts.
（b） space that could be better used for display is taken up for storage.
（c） artifacts discovered in one excavation often become separated from each other.
（d） such artifacts are often damaged by variations in temperature and humidity.
（e） such artifacts‘ often remain uncatalogued and thus cannot be located once they are put in storage.
4. the author mentions the excavation in cyprus （lines31-34） to emphasize which of the following points？
（a） ancient lamps and pottery vessels are less valuable，although more rare， than royal seal impressions.
（b） artifacts that are very similar to each other presentcataloguing difficulties to archaeologists.
（c） artifacts that are not uniquely valuable， andtherefore could be sold， are available in large quantities.
（d） cyprus is the most important location for unearthing large quantities of salable artifacts.
（e） illegal sales of duplicate artifacts are wide-spread，particularly on the island of cyprus.
5. the author‘s argument concerning the effect of theofficial sale of duplicate artifacts on illegal excavationis based on which of the following assumptions？
（a） prospective purchasers would prefer to buy authenticated artifacts.
（b） the price of illegally excavated artifacts would rise.
（c） computers could be used to trace sold artifacts.
（d） illegal excavators would be forced to sell onlyduplicate artifacts.
（e） money gained from selling authenticated artifactscould be used to investigate and prosecute illegal excavators.
6. the author anticipates which of the following initialobjections to the adoption of his proposal？
（a） museum officials will become unwilling to store artifacts.
（b） an oversupply of salable artifacts will result and the demand for them will fall.
（c） artifacts that would have been displayed in public places will be sold to private collectors.
（d） illegal excavators will have an even larger supply of artifacts for resale.
（e） counterfeiting of artifacts will become more commonplace.
7. the author implies that which of the following wouldoccur if duplicate artifacts were sold on the openmarket？
ⅰ.illegal excavation would eventually cease completely.
ⅱ.cyprus would become the primary source of marketable duplicate artifacts
ⅲ.archaeologists would be able to publish theresults of their excavations more frequentlythan they currently do.
（a） ⅰonly
（b） ⅲ only
（c） ⅰand ⅱonly
（d） ⅱ and ⅲ only
（e） ⅰ，ⅱ，and ⅲ
passage 12
federal efforts to aid minority businesses began in the1960‘s when the small business administration （sba）began making federally guaranteed loans and govern-ment-sponsored management and technical assistance（5） available to minority business enterprises. while thisprogram enabled many minority entrepreneurs toform new businesses， the results were disappointing，since managerial inexperience， unfavorable locations，and capital shortages led to high failure rates. even 15（10） years after the program was implemented， minoritybusiness receipts were not quite two percent of the nationaleconomy’s total receipts.
recently federal policymakers have adopted anapproach intended to accelerate development of the（15） minority business sector by moving away from directlyaiding small minority enterprises and toward supportinglarger， growth-oriented minority firms through interme-diary companies. in this approach， large corporationsparticipate in the development of successful and stable（20） minority businesses by making use of government-sponsored venture capital. the capital is used by aparticipating company to establish a minority enterprisesmall business investment company or mesbic. themesbic then provides capital and guidance to minority（25） businesses that have potential to become future suppliersor customers of the sponsoring company.
mesbic‘s are the result of the belief that providingestablished firms with easier access to relevant manage-ment techniques and more job-specific experience， as（30） well as substantial amounts of capital， gives those firmsa greater opportunity to develop sound business founda-tions than does simply making general managementexperience and small amounts of capital available.
further， since potential markets for the minority busi-（35） nesses already exist through the sponsoring companies， the minority businesses face considerably less risk interms of location and market fluctuation. followingearly financial and operating problems， sponsoringcorporations began to capitalize mesbic‘s far above（40） the legal minimum of $500，000 in order to generatesufficient income and to sustain the quality of manage-ment needed. mesbic’c are now emerging as increas-ingly important financing sources for minority enter-prises.
（45）ironically， mesbic staffs， which usually consist ofhispanic and black professionals， tend to approachinvestments in minority firms more pragmatically thando many mesbic directors， who are usually seniormanagers from sponsoring corporations. the latter（50） often still think mainly in terms of the “social responsi-bility approach” and thus seem to prefer deals that areriskier and less attractive than normal investment criteria would warrant. such differences in viewpoint have pro- duced uneasiness among many minority staff members，（55） who feel that minority entrepreneurs and businessesshould be judged by established business considerations.these staff members believe their point of view is closerto the original philosophy of mesbic‘s and they areconcerned that， unless a more prudent course is fol-lowed， mesbic directors may revert to policies likely to re-create the disappointing results of the original sbaapproach.
1. which of the following best states the central idea of the passage？
（a） the use of mesbic‘s for aiding minority entrepreneurs seems to have greater potential for success than does the original sba approach.
（b） there is a crucial difference in point of view between the staff and directors of some mesbic‘s.
（c） after initial problems with management andmarketing， minority businesses have begun toexpand at a steady rate.
（d） minority entrepreneurs wishing to form newbusinesses now have several equally successfulfederal programs on which to rely.
（e） for the first time since 1960， large corporations aremaking significant contributions to the developmentof minority businesses.
2. according to the passage， the mesbic approachdiffers from the sba approach in that mesbic‘s
（a） seek federal contracts to provide marketsfor minority businesses
（b） encourage minority businesses to provide markets for other minority businesses
（c） attempt to maintain a specified rate of growth in the minority business sector
（d） rely on the participation of large corporations to finance minority businesses
（e） select minority businesses on the basis of theirlocation
3. which of the following does the author cite to support the conclusion that the results of the sba program were disappointing？
（a） the small number of new minority enterprises formed as a result of the program
（b） the small number of minority enterprises that tookadvantage of the management and technicalassistance offiered under the program
（c） the small percentage of the nation‘s businessreceipts earned by minority enterprises followingthe programs， implementation.
（d） the small percentage of recipient minority enterprises that were able to repay federally guaranteed loans made under the program
（e） the small number of minority enterprises that chose to participate in the program
4. which of the following statements about the sba program can be inferred from the passage？
（a） the maximum term for loans made to recipient businesses was 15 years.
（b） business loans were considered to be more useful torecipient businesses than was management andtechnical assistance.
（c） the anticipated failure rate for recipient businesses was significantly lower than the rate that actually resulted.
（d） recipient businesses were encouraged to relocate to areas more favorable for business development.
（e） the capitalization needs of recipient businesses wereassessed and then provided for adequately.
5. based on information in the passage， which of thefollowing would be indicative of the pragmatism ofmesbic staff members？
ⅰ.a reluctance to invest in minority businesses that show marginal expectations of return on the investments
ⅱ. a desire to invest in minority businesses that produce goods and services likely to be of use to the sponsoring company
ⅲ. a belief that the minority business sector is best served by investing primarily in newly established businesses
（a）ⅰonly
（b） ⅲ only
（c）ⅰand ⅱ only
（d）ⅱ and ⅲ only
（e）ⅰ，ⅱ and ⅲ
6. the author refers to the “financial and operatingproblems”（line 38 ） encountered by mesbic‘sprimarily in order to
（a） broaden the scope of the discussion to include the legal considerations of funding mesbic‘s throughsponsoring companies
（b） call attention to the fact that mesbic‘s must receive adequate funding in order to functioneffectively
（c） show that sponsoring companies were willing to invest only $500，000 of government-sponsoredventure capital in the original mesbic‘s
（d） compare sba and mesbic limits on minimum funding
（e） refute suggestions that mesbic‘s have been only marginally successful
7. the author‘s primary objective in the passage is to
（a） disprove the view that federal efforts to aid minority businesses have been ineffective
（b） explain how federal efforts to aid minority businesses have changed since the 1960‘s
（c） establish a direct link between the federal effortsto aid minority businesses made before the 1960‘s and those made in the 1980’s
（d） analyze the basis for the belief that job-specific experience is more useful to minority businesses than is general management experience
（e） argue that the “social responsibility approach” to aiding minority businesses is superior to any other approach
8. it can be inferred from the passage that the attitude ofsome mesbic staff members toward the investmentspreferred by some mesbic directors can best bedescribed as
（a） defensive
（b） resigned
（c） indifferent
（d） shocked
（e） disapproving
9. the passage provides information that would answerwhich of the following questions？
（a） what was the average annual amount， in dollars， of minority business receipts before the sba strategy was implemented?
（b） what locations are considered to be unfavorable for minority businesses？
（c） what is the current success rate for minority businesses that are capitalized by mesbic‘s？
（d） how has the use of federal funding for minority businesses changed since the 1960‘s？
（e） how do minority businesses apply to participate in a mesbic program？
passage 13
the majority of successful senior managers do notclosely follow the classical rational model of first clari-fying goals， assessing the problem， formulating options，estimating likelihoods of success， making a decision，（5） and only then taking action to implement the decision.rather， in their day-by-day tactical maneuvers， thesesenior executives rely on what is vaguely termed “intu-ition” to mangage a network of interrelated problemsthat require them to deal with ambiguity， inconsistency，（10） novelty， and surprise； and to integrate action into theprocess to thinking.
generations of writers on management have recog-nized that some practicing managers rely heavily onintuition. in general， however， such writers display a（15）poor grasp of what intuition is. some see it as the oppo-site of rationality： others view it as an excuse for ca-priciousness.
isenberg‘s recent research on the cognitive processesof senior managers reveals that managers’ intuition is（20） neither of these. rather， senior managers use intuitionin at least five distinct ways. first， they intuitively sensewhen a problem exists. second， managers rely on intu-ition to perform well-learned behavior patterns rapidly.this intuition is not arbitrary or irrational， but is based（25）on years of painstaking practice and hands-on experi-ence that build skills. a third function of intuition is tosynthesize isolated bits of data and practice into an inte-grated picture， often in an “aha！” experience. fourth，
given the great uncertainty of many of the manage-（50） ment issues that they face， senior managers often insti-gate a course of action simply to learn more about anissue. they then use the results of the action to developa more complete understanding of the issue. one impli-cation of thinking/acting cycles is that action is often（55） part of defining the problem， not just of implementingthe solution.
1. according to the passage， senior managers useintuition in all of the following ways except to
（a） speed up of the creation of a solution to a problem
（b） identify a problem
（c） bring together disparate facts
（d） stipulate clear goals
（e） evaluate possible solutions to a problem
2. the passage suggests which of the following about the “writers on management” mentioned in line 12？
（a） they have criticized managers for not following the classical rational model of decision analysis.
（b） they have not based their analyses on a sufficiently large sample of actual managers.
（c） they have relied in drawing their conclusions on what managers say rather than on what managers do.
（d） they have miSUNderstood how managers use intuition in making business decisions.
（e） they have not acknowledged the role of intuition in managerial practice.
3. which of the following best exemplifies “an ‘aha！’ experience” （line 28） as it is presented in the passage？
（a） a manager risks taking an action whose outcome is unpredictable to discover whether the action changes the problem at hand.
（b） a manager performs well-learned and familiar behavior patterns in creative and uncharacteristic ways to solve a problem.
（c） a manager suddenly connects seemingly unrelatedfacts and experiences to create a pattern relevant to the problem at hand.
（d） a manager rapidly identifies the methodology used to compile data yielded by systematic analysis.
（e） a manager swiftly decides which of several sets of tactics to implement in order to deal with the conti -ngencies suggested by a problem.
4. according to the passage， the classical model ofdecision analysis includes all of the following except
（a） evaluation of a problem
（b） creation of possible solutions to a problem
（c） establishment of clear goals to be reached by the decision
（d） action undertaken in order to discover more information about a problem
（e） comparison of the probable effects of different solutions to a problem
5. it can be inferred from the passage that which of thefollowing would most probably be one major differencein behavior between manager x， who uses intuition toreach decisions， and manager y， who uses only formaldecision analysis？
（a） manager x analyzes first and then acts； manager y does not.
（b） manager x checks possible solutions to a problem by systematic analysis； manager y does not
（c） manager x takes action in order to arrive at the solution to a problem； manager y does not.
（d） manager y draws on years of hands-on experiencein creating a solution to a problem； manager xdoes not.
（e） manger y depends on day-to-day tactical maneuvering； manager x does not.
6. it can be inferred from the passage that “thinking/actingcycles” （line 45 ） in managerial practice would belikely to result in which of the following？
ⅰ.a manager analyzes a network of problems and then acts on the basis of that analysis.
ⅱ. a manager gathers data by acting and observing the effects of action.
ⅲ. a manager takes action without being able to articulate reasons for that particular action.
（a） ⅰ only
（b） ⅱ only
（c） ⅰ and ⅱ only
（d） ⅱ and ⅲ only
（e） ⅰ，ⅱ， and ⅲ
7. the passage provides support for which of the following statements？
（a） managers who rely on intuition are more successful than those who rely on formal decision analysis.
（b） managers cannot justify their intuitive decisions.
（c） managers‘ intuition works contrary to their rational and analytical skills
（d） logical analysis of a problem increases the number of possible solutions.
（e） intuition enables managers to employ their practical experience more efficiently.
8. which of the following best describes the organization of the first paragraph of the passage？
（a） an assertion is made and a specific supporting example is given.
（b） a conventional model is dismissed and an alternative introduced.
（c） the results of recent research are introduced and summarized
（d） two opposing points of view are presented and evaluated.
（e） a widely accepted definition is presented and qualified.
passage 14
nearly a century ago， biologists found that if theyseparated an invertebrate animal embryo into two partsat an early stage of its life， it would survive and developas two normal embryos. this led them to believe that the（5）cells in the early embryo are undetermined in the sensethat each cell has the potential to develop in a variety ofdifferent ways. later biologists found that the situationwas not so simple. it matters in which plane the embryois cut. if it is cut in a plane different from the one used（10） by the early investigators， it will not form two wholeembryos.
a debate arose over what exactly was happening.which embryo cells are determined， just when do they-become irreversibly committed to their fates， and what（15） are the “morphogenetic determinants” that tell a cellwhat to become？ but the debate could not be resolvedbecause no one was able to ask the crucial questionsin a form in which they could be pursued productively.recent discoveries in molecular biology， however， have（20）opened up prospects for a resolution of the debate.now investigators think they know at least some of themolecules that act as morphogenetic determinants inearly development. they have been able o show that， in a sense， cell determination begins even before an egg（25） is fertilized.
studying sea urchins， biologist paul gross foundthat an unfertilized egg contains substances that func-tion as morphogenetic determinants. they are locatedin the cytoplasm of the egg cell； i.e.， in that part of the（30） cell‘s protoplasm that lies outside of the nucleus. in theunfertilized egg， the substances are inactive and are notdistributed homogeneously. when the egg is fertilized，the substances become active and， presumably， governthe behavior of the genes they interact with. since the（35） substances are unevenly distributed in the egg， when thefertilized egg divides， the resulting cells are differentfrom the start and so can be qualitatively different intheir own gene activity.
the substances that gross studied are maternal（40） messenger rna‘s ——products of certain of the maternalgenes. he and other biologists studying a wide varietyof organisms have found that these particular rna’sdirect， in large part， the synthesis of histones， a classof proteins that bind to dna. once synthesized， the（45） histones move into the cell nucleus， where section ofdna wrap around them to form a structure that resem-bles beads， or knots， on a string. the beads are dnasegments wrapped around the histones； the string is theintervening dna. and it is the structure of these beaded（50） dna strings that guides the fate of the cells in which they are located.
1. the passage is most probably directed at which kind ofaudience？
（a） state legislators deciding about funding levels for a state-funded biological laboratory
（b） scientists specializing in molecular genetics
（c） readers of an alumni newsletter published by the college that paul gross attended
（d） marine biologists studying the processes that give rise to new species
（e） undergraduate biology majors in a molecular biology course
2. it can be inferred from the passage that the morphogenetic determinants present in the early embryo are
（a） located in the nucleus of the embryo cells
（b） evenly distributed unless the embryo is not developing normally
（c） inactive until the embryo cells become irreversibly committed to their final function
（d） identical to those that were already present in the unfertilized egg
（e） present in larger quantities than is necessary for the development of a single individual
3. the main topic of the passage is
（a） the early development of embryos of lower marine organisms
（b） the main contribution of modern embryology to molecular biology
（c） the role of molecular biology in disproving older theories of embryonic development
（d） cell determination as an issue in the study of embryonic development
（e） scientific dogma as a factor in the recent debate over the value of molecular biology
4. according to the passage， when biologists believed that the cells in the early embryo were undetermined， they made which of the following mistakes？
（a） they did not attempt to replicate the original experiment of separating an embryo into two parts.
（b） they did not realize that there was a connection between the issue of cell determination and the outcome of the separation experiment.
（c） they assumed that the results of experiments on embryos did not depend on the particular animal species used for such experiments.
（d） they assumed that it was crucial to perform the separation experiment at an early stage in the embryo‘s life.
（e） they assumed that different ways of separating an embryo into two parts would be equivalent as far as the fate of the two parts was concerned.e fate of the two parts was concerned.
5. it can be inferred from the passage that the initialproduction of histones after an egg is fertilized takesplace
（a） in the cytoplasm
（b） in the maternal genes
（c） throughout the protoplasm
（d） in the beaded portions of the dna strings
（e） in certain sections of the cell nucleus
6. it can be inferred from the passage that which of thefollowing is dependent on the fertilization of an egg？
（a） copying of maternal genes to produce maternal messenger rna‘s
（b） sythesis of proteins called histones
（c） division of a cell into its nucleus and the cytoplasm
（d） determination of the egg cell‘s potential for division
（e） generation of all of a cell‘s morphogenetic determinants
7. according to the passage， the morphogeneticdeterminants present in the unfertilized egg cell arewhich of the following？
（a） proteins bound to the nucleus
（b） histones
（c） maternal messenger rna‘s
（d） cytoplasm
（e） nonbeaded intervening dna
8. the passage suggests that which of the following plays arole in determining whether an embryo separated intotwo parts will two parts will develop as two normalembryos？
ⅰ.the stage in the embryo‘s life at which the separation occurs
ⅱ. the instrument with which the separations is accomplished
ⅲ. the plane in which the cut is made that separates the embryo
（a） ⅰonly
（b） ⅱ only
（c） ⅰ and ⅱ。only
（d） ⅰ and ⅲ。only
（e） ⅰ，ⅱ， and ⅲ
9. which of the following circumstances is mostcomparable to the impasse biologists encountered intrying to resolve the debate about cell determination（lines 12-18）？
（a） the problems faced by a literary scholar who wishes to use original source materials that are written in an unfamiliar foreign language
（b） the situation of a mathematician who in preparing a proof of a theorem for publication detects a reasoning error in the proof
（c） the difficulties of a space engineer who has to design equipment to function in an environment in which it cannot first be tested
（d） the predicament of a linguist trying to develop atheory of language acquisition when knowledge of the structure of language itself is rudimentary at best
（e） the dilemma confronting a foundation when the funds available to it are sufficient to support one of two equally deserving scientific projects but not both
